Works Cited

1. Epstein DH, Philips KA, Preston KL. Opioids. In: Ruiz P, Strain E (eds). Lowinson and Ruiz's Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2011: 161-190.

2. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.

3. Federation of State Medical Boards. Guidelines for the Chronic Use of Opioid Analgesics. Washington, DC: Federation of State Medical Boards; 2017.

4. Prince V. Pain management in patients with substance-use disorders. In: Chronic Illnesses I, II, and III–PSAP-VII, Book 5. Lenexa, KS: American College of Clinical Pharmacology; 2011.

5. Utah Department of Health. Utah Medical Association. Utah Clinical Guidelines on Prescribing Opioids for Treatment of Pain. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Department of Health; 2018.

6. American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definition of Addiction. Available at https://www.asam.org/quality-care/definition-of-addiction. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

7. Miller NS, Greenfeld A. Patient characteristics and risks factors for development of dependence on hydrocodone and oxycodone. Am J Ther. 2004;11(1):26-32.

8. Schwartz RH. Adolescent heroin use: a review. Pediatrics. 1998;102(6):1461-1466.

9. Yaksh T, Wallace M. Opioids, analgesia, and pain management. In: Brunton L, Hilal-Dandan R, Knollmann BC (eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 13th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2017: 355-386.

10. Havens JR, Walker R, Leukefeld CG. Prevalence of opioid analgesic injection among rural nonmedical opioid analgesic users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;87(1):98-102.

11. United Nations. World Drug Report 2023. Available at https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2023.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

12. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health Releases: Detailed Tables. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/release/2021-national-survey-drug-use-and-health-nsduh-releases#detailed-tables. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

13. Worldometer. United States Population (Live). Available at https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/us-population/. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

14. International Narcotics Control Board. Narcotic Drugs: Estimated World Requirements for 2023: Statistics for 2021. Available at https://www.incb.org/documents/Narcotic-Drugs/Technical-Publications/2022/Narcotic_Drugs_Technical_Publication_2022.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

15. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. The DAWN Report: Highlights of the 2011 Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) Findings on Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration; 2013.

16. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011: National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED/DAWN2k11ED.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Archive. Overdose Deaths Accelerating During COVID-19. Available at https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2020/p1218-overdose-deaths-covid-19.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

18. Mattson CL, Tanz LJ, Quinn K, Kariisa M, Patel P, Davis NL. Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths—United States, 2013–2019. MMWR. 2021;70(6):202-207.

19. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Heroin: What is the Scope of Heroin Use in the United States? Available at https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/heroin/scope-heroin-use-in-united-states. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

20. Miech RA, Johnston LD, Patrick ME, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2023: Secondary School Students. Available at https://monitoringthefuture.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/mtf2023.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

21. Zacny JP, Gutierrez S, Bolbolan SA. Profiling the subjective, psychomotor, and physiological effects of a hydrocodone/acetaminophen product in recreational drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;78(3):243-252.

22. The Top 50 Drugs Prescribed in the United States. Available at https://www.healthgrades.com/right-care/patient-advocate/the-top-50-drugs-prescribed-in-the-united-states. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

23. Burke J. Hydrocodone Prescribing and Quotas. Available at https://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/hydrocodone-prescribing-and-quotas. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

24. Drug Enforcement Administration. Hydrocodone. Available at https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/hydrocodone.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

25. Woolf CJ, Hashmi M. Use and abuse of opioid analgesics: potential methods to prevent and deter non-medical consumption of prescription opioids. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2004;5(1):61-66.

26. Ruetsch C. Empirical view of opioid dependence. J Manag Care Pharm. 2010;16(1 Suppl B):S9-13.

27. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) 2021: Admissions to and Discharges from Substance Use Treatment Services Reported by Single State Agencies. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt42794/2021-teds-annual-report.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

28. Wu LT, Woody GE, Yang C, Blazer DG. Subtypes of nonmedical opioid users: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;112(1-2):69-80.

29. Compton WM, Volkow ND. Major increases in opioid analgesic abuse in the United States: concerns and strategies. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;81(2):103-107.

30. Wasan AD, Correll DJ, Kissin I, O'Shea S, Jamison RN. Iatrogenic addiction in patients treated for acute or subacute pain: a systematic review. J Opioid Manag. 2006;2(1):16-22.

31. McCabe SE, West BT, Morales M, Cranford JA, Boyd CJ. Does early onset of non-medical use of prescription drugs predict subsequent prescription drug abuse and dependence? Results from a national study. Addiction. 2007;102(12):1920-1930.

32. The Partnership for a Drug-Free America. 2012 Partnership Attitude Tracking Study: Teens and Parents. Available at https://drugfree.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/PATS-2012-FULL-REPORT2.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

33. Jamison RN, Serraillier J, Michna E. Assessment and treatment of abuse risk in opioid prescribing for chronic pain. Pain Res Treat. 2011:941808.

34. Warner-Smith M, Darke S, Lynskey M, Hall W. Heroin overdose: causes and consequences. Addiction. 2001;96(8):1113-1125.

35. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug Overdose: Opioid Overdose. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/deaths/opioid-overdose.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

36. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug Overdose: Drug Overdose Deaths. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/deaths/index.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

37. Spencer MR, Miniño AM, Warner M. Drug Overdose Deaths in the United States, 2001-2021. NCHS Data Brief, no 457. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2022.

38. Mattson CL, Tanz LJ, Quinn K, et al. Trends and geographic patterns in drug and synthetic opioid overdose deaths – United States, 2013-2019. MMWR. 2021;70(6):202-207.

39. Office on Women's Health. Final Report: Opioid Use, Misuse, and Overdose in Women: 2017. Available at https://owh-wh-d9-dev.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/documents/final-report-opioid-508.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

40. American Society of Addiction Medicine. Opioid Addiction: 2016 Facts and Figures. Available at https://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/opioid-addiction-disease-facts-figures.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

41. O'Donnel J, Gladden RM, Mattson CL, Kariisa M. Notes from the field: overdose deaths with carfentanil and other fentanyl analogs detected–10 states, July 2016–June 2017. MMWR. 2018;67(27):767-768.

42. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [Archive]. CDC Health Advisory: Influx of Fentanyl-Laced Counterfeit Pills and Toxic Fentanyl-Related Compounds Further Increases Risk of Fentanyl-Related Overdose and Fatalities. Available at https://emergency.cdc.gov/han/han00395.asp. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

43. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Opioid Overdose: Prescription Opioids. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/deaths/opioid-overdose.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

44. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drug Overdose: Prescribing Practices. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/deaths/prescription/practices.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

45. Manchikanti L, Abdi S, Atluri S, et al. American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines for responsible opioid prescribing in chronic noncancer pain: Part 2—guidance. Pain Physician. 2012;15(3 Suppl):S67-S116.

46. Manchikanti L, Singh A. Therapeutic opioids: a ten-year perspective on the complexities and complications of the escalating use, abuse, and nonmedical use of opioids. Pain Physician. 2008;11(2 Suppl):S63-S88.

47. Manchikanti L, Fellows B, Ailinani H, Pampati V. Therapeutic use, abuse, and nonmedical use of opioids: a ten-year perspective.Pain Physician. 2010;13:401-435.

48. Webster LR, Cochella S, Dasgupta N, et al. An analysis of the root causes for opioid-related overdose deaths in the United States.Pain Medicine. 2011;12(Suppl 2):S26-S35.

49. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital Signs: risk for overdose from methadone used for pain relief—United States, 1999–2010. MMWR. 2012;61(26):493-497.

50. Armstrong SC, Cozza KL. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions of morphine, codeine, and their derivatives: theory and clinical reality, part II. Psychosomatics. 2003;44(6):515-520.

51. White JM, Irvine RJ. Mechanisms of fatal opioid overdose. Addiction. 1999;94(7):961-972.

52. Gruber SA, Silveri MM, Yurgelun-Todd DA. Neuropsychological consequences of opiate use. Neuropsychol Rev. 2007;17(3):299-315.

53. Ghuran A, van der Wieken LR, Nolan J. Cardiovascular complications of recreational drugs. BMJ. 2001;323(7311):464-466.

54. Palamar JJ. Use of "Lean" among electronic dance music party attendees. Am J Addict. 2019;28(5):347-352.

55. LexiComp Online. Available at https://online.lexi.com. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

56. Krantz MJ, Mehler PS. Treating opioid dependence: growing implications for primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164(3):277-288.

57. Gasche Y, Daali Y, Fathi M, et al. Codeine intoxication associated with ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolism. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(27):2827-2831.

58. Fredheim OM, Moksnes K, Borchgrevink PC, Kaasa S, Dale O. Clinical pharmacology of methadone for pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008;52(7):879-889.

59. National Institute on Drug Abuse. What is the Treatment Need Versus the Diversion Risk for Opioid Use Disorder Treatment? Available at https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/medications-to-treat-opioid-addiction/what-treatment-need-versus-diversion-risk-opioid-use-disorder-treatment. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

60. Kleber HD. Methadone maintenance 4 decades later: thousands of lives saved but still controversial. JAMA. 2008;300(19):2303-2305.

61. Homsi J, Walsh D, Nelson KA. Important drugs for cough in advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2001;9(8):565-574.

62. Cone EJ, Heit HA, Caplan YH, Gourlay D. Evidence of morphine metabolism to hydromorphone in pain patients chronically treated with morphine. J Anal Toxicol. 2006;30(1):1-5.

63. Benyamin R, Trescot AM, Datta S, et al. Opioid complications and side effects. Pain Physician. 2008;11(2 Suppl):S105-S120.

64. Moeller KE, Lee KC, Kissack JC. Urine drug screening: practical guide for clinicians. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83(1):66-76.

65. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Targiniq ER with Abuse-Deterrent Properties. Available at http://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170111080314/http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm406290.htm. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

66. Sarhill N, Walsh D, Nelson KA. Hydromorphone: pharmacology and clinical applications in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer. 2001;9(2):84-96.

67. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Drug Safety Communication. FDA Updates Prescribing Information for All Opioid Pain Medicines to Provide Additional Guidance for Safe Use. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-updates-prescribing-information-all-opioid-pain-medicines-provide-additional-guidance-safe-use. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

68. Tetrault JM, Fiellin DA. Current and potential pharmacological treatment options for maintenance therapy in opioid-dependent individuals. Drugs. 2012;72:217-228.

69. Davids E, Gastpar M. Buprenorphine in the treatment of opioid dependence. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;14(3):209-216.

70. Moukaddam N, Herin DV, Stotts A, et al. Comparison of 3 L-α-acetyl-methadol (LAAM) maintenance strategies for heroin dependence. Addictive Disord Treatment. 2009;8(4):191-200.

71. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Bunavail: Highlights of Prescribing Information. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/205637s000lbl.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

72. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Buprenorphine Implant for Treatment of Opioid Dependence. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-buprenorphine-implant-treatment-opioid-dependence. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

73. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Once-Monthly Buprenorphine Injection, a Medication-Assisted Treatment Option for Opioid Use Disorder. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-once-monthly-buprenorphine-injection-medication-assisted-treatment-option-opioid. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

74. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA News Release: FDA Approves New Buprenorphine Treatment Option for Opioid use Disorder. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-buprenorphine-treatment-option-opioid-use-disorder. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

75. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Waiver Elimination (MAT Act). Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/medications-substance-use-disorders/waiver-elimination-mat-act. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

76. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Training Requirements (MATE Act) Resources. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/medications-substance-use-disorders/training-requirements-mate-act-resources. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

77. van den Brink W, Haasen C. Evidence-based treatment of opioid-dependent patients. Can J Psychiatry. 2006;51(10):635-646.

78. Oliver J, Coggins C, Compton P, et al. American Society for Pain Management Nursing position statement: pain management in patients with substance use disorders. Pain Management Nursing. 2012;13:169-183.

79. McPherson ML. Opioids: fears, myths, and misconceptions. Pain View. 2011;7:16-18.

80. Kaye AD, Gevirtz C, Bosscher HA, et al. Ultrarapid opiate detoxification: a review. Can J Anaesth. 2003;50(7):663-671.

81. Xi ZX, Stein EA. GABAergic mechanisms of opiate reinforcement. Alcohol Alcohol. 2002;37(5):485-494.

82. Harris AC, Gewirtz JC. Acute opioid dependence: characterizing the early adaptations underlying drug withdrawal. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2005;178(4):353-366.

83. Tso PH, Wong YH. Molecular basis of opioid dependence: role of signal regulation by G-proteins. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2003;30 (5-6):307-316.

84. Fiellin DA, Friedland GH, Gourevitch MN. Opioid dependence: rationale for and efficacy of existing and new treatments. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(Suppl 4):S173-S177.

85. Wise RA. Neurobiology of addiction. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 1996;6:243-251.

86. van den Brink W, van Ree JM. Pharmacological treatments for heroin and cocaine addiction. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2003;13(6):476-487.

87. Vukmir RB. Drug seeking behavior. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2004;30:551-575.

88. Wood E, Kerr T, Stoltz J, et al. Prevalence and correlates of hepatitis C infection among users of North America's first medically supervised safer injection facility. Public Health. 2005;119(12):1111-1115.

89. Bruce RD, Altice FL. Clinical care of the HIV-infected drug user. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2007;21(1):174-179.

90. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report: Diagnoses of HIV Infection in the United States and Dependent Areas, 2021. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance/vol-34/index.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

91. Cooper OB, Brown TT, Dobs AS. Opiate drug use: a potential contributor to the endocrine and metabolic complications in human immunodeficiency virus disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(Suppl 2):S132-S136.

92. Colameco S, Coren JS. Opioid-induced endocrinopathy. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2009;109(1):20-25.

93. Pereska Z, Bozinovska C, Dimitrovski C, et al. Heron dependence duration influences the metabolic parameters: mechanisms and consequences of impaired insulin sensitivity in hepatitis C virus seronegative heroin dependents. J Addict Med. 2012;6(4):304-310.

94. Rogers RD, Robbins TW. Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2001;11(2):250-257.

95. Bates ME, Buckman JF, Voelbel GT, Eddie D, Freeman J. The mean and the individual: integrating variable-centered and person-centered analyses of cognitive recovery in patients with substance use disorders. Front Psychiatry. 2013;4:177.

96. Specka M, Finkbeiner T, Lodemann E, Leifert K, Kluwig J, Gastpar M. Cognitive-motor performance of methadone-maintained patients. Eur Addict Res. 2000;6(1):8-19.

97. Liao DL, Huang CY, Hu S, et al. Cognitive control in opioid dependence and methadone maintenance treatment. PLoS One. 2014;9(4):e94589.

98. Henry PK, Umbricht A, Kleykamp BA, et al. Comparison of cognitive performance in methadone maintenance patients with and without current cocaine dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012;124(1-2):167-171.

99. Darke S, Hall W. Heroin overdose: research and evidence-based intervention. J Urban Health. 2003;80(2):189-200.

100. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prescription Painkiller Overdoses: Infographics. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/prescriptionpainkilleroverdoses/#anchor_1490282293. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

101. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Unintentional Drug Poisoning in the United States. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/medicationsafety/pdfs/cdc_5538_ds1.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

102. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services AdministrationOverdose Prevention and Response Toolkit. Available at https://store.samhsa.gov/product/overdose-prevention-response-toolkit/pep23-03-00-001. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

103. Noda Y, Nabeshima T. Opiate physical dependence and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. Eur J Pharmacology. 2004;500(1-3):121-128.

104. McKeown NJ. Withdrawal Syndromes. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/819502-overview. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

105. Bhalla S, Andurkar SV, Gulati A. Neurobiology of opioid withdrawal: role of the endothelin system. Life Sci. 2016;159:34-42.

106. Bhalla S, Pais G, Tapia M, Gulati A. Endothelin ETA receptor antagonist reverses naloxone-precipitated opioid withdrawal in mice. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2015;93(11):935-944.

107. American Society of Addiction Medicine. The ASAM National Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder: 2020 Focused Update. Available at https://sitefinitystorage.blob.core.windows.net/sitefinity-production-blobs/docs/default-source/guidelines/npg-jam-supplement.pdf?sfvrsn=a00a52c2_2. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

108. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Grants Marketing Authorization of the First Device For Use in Helping to Reduce the Symptoms of Opioid Withdrawal. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-grants-marketing-authorization-first-device-use-helping-reduce-symptoms-opioid-withdrawal. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

109. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves the First Non-Opioid Treatment for Management of Opioid Withdrawal Symptoms in Adults. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-non-opioid-treatment-management-opioid-withdrawal-symptoms-adults. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

110. Aston-Jones G, Harris GC. Brain substrates for increased drug seeking during protracted withdrawal. Neuropharmacology. 2004;47(Suppl 1):167-179.

111. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services (N-SSATS): 2020, Data on Substance Abuse Treatment Facilities. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/national-survey-substance-abuse-treatment-services-n-ssats-2020-data-substance-abuse. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

112. Kahan M, Srivastava A, Wilson L, Gourlay D, Midmer D. Misuse of and dependence on opioids: study of chronic pain patients.Can Fam Physician. 2006;52(9):1081-1087.

113. Institute of Medicine, Committee on Advancing Pain Research, Care, and Education. Relieving Pain in America: A Blueprint for Transforming Prevention, Care, Education, and Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2011.

114. PRNewswire. U.S. Public and Doctors' Misperceptions Revealed in National Survey Demonstrate Urgent Need for Increased Opioid Dependence Awareness. Available at https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/us-public-and-doctors-misperceptions-revealed-in-national-survey-demonstrate-urgent-need-for-increased-opioid-dependence-awareness-210981471.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

115. Breuer B, Pappagallo M, Tai JY, Portenoy RK. U.S. board-certified pain physician practices: uniformity and census data of their locations. J Pain. 2007;8:244-250.

116. Manchikanti L, Singh A. Therapeutic opioids: a ten-year perspective on the complexities and complications of the escalating use, abuse, and nonmedical use of opioids. Pain Physician. 2008;11(2 Suppl):S63-S88.

117. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital signs: overdoses of prescription opioid pain relievers—United States, 1999–2008. MMWR. 2011;60(43):1487-1492.

118. Bohnert AS, Valenstein M, Bair MJ, et al. Association between opioid prescribing patterns and opioid overdose-related deaths. JAMA. 2011;305(13):1315-1321.

119. Potter JS, Hennessy G, Borrow JA, Greenfield SF, Weiss RD. Substance use histories in patients seeking treatment for controlled-release oxycodone dependence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;76(2):213-215.

120. Dowell D, Ragan KR, Jones CM, Baldwin GT, Chou R. CDC clinical practice guideline for prescribing opioids for pain – United States, 2022. MMWR. 2022;71(RR-3):1-95.

121. Cassels C. FDA Okays Handheld Autoinjector for Opioid Overdose. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/823039. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

122. Drugs.com. Narcan (Naloxone HCl) Nasal Spray 2mg Approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available at https://www.drugs.com/newdrugs/narcan-naloxone-hcl-nasal-2mg-approved-u-s-food-administration-4485.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

123. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Narcan Nasal Spray (Naloxone Intranasal) [Package Insert]. Available at https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2015/208411lbl.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

124. American Health and Drug Benefits. FDA Moves Quickly to Approve Easy-To-Use Nasal Spray to Treat Opioid Overdose. Available at https://www.ahdbonline.com/in-the-news-december-2015/2027-fda-moves-quickly-to-approve-easy-to-use-nasal-spray-to-treat-opioid-overdose. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

125. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Higher Dosage of Naloxone Nasal Spray to Treat Opioid Overdose. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-higher-dosage-naloxone-nasal-spray-treat-opioid-overdose. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

126. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA News Release: FDA Approves First Over-the-Counter Naloxone Nasal Spray. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-over-counter-naloxone-nasal-spray. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

127. Ritter A, Cameron J. A review of the efficacy and effectiveness of harm reduction strategies for alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2006;25(6):611-624.

128. Hawk M, Coulter RWS, Egan JE, et al. Harm reduction principles for healthcare settings. Harm Reduct J. 2017;14(1):70.

129. Des Jarlais DC, Semaan S. HIV prevention for injecting drug users: the first 25 years and counting. Psychosom Med. 2008;70(5):606-611.

130. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Determination of Need for Syringe Services Programs. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/ssp/determination-of-need-for-ssp.html. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

131. Drug Policy Alliance. Overdose Prevention Centers. Available at https://drugpolicy.org/issue/overdose-prevention-centers-opcs/. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

132. Ferri M, Davoli M, Perucci CA. Heroin maintenance for chronic heroin-dependent individuals. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;12:CD003410.

133. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Federal Guidelines for Opioid Treatment Programs. Available at https://store.samhsa.gov/product/federal-guidelines-opioid-treatment-programs/pep15-fedguideotp. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

134. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treatment Improvement Protocol 63: Medications for Opioid Use Disorder, Updated 2021. Available at https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/pep21-02-01-002.pdf. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

135. Strang J, McCambridge J, Best D, et al. Loss of tolerance and overdose mortality after inpatient opiate detoxifcation: follow-up study. BMJ. 2003;326(7396):959-960.

136. Weiss RD, Potter JS, Fiellin DA, et al. Adjunctive counseling during brief and extended buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for prescription opioid dependence: a 2-phase randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(12):1238-1246.

137. Fiellin D, Schottenfeld R, Cutter C, Moore A, Barry D, O'Connor P. (2014). Primary care based buprenorphine taper vs maintenance therapy for prescription opioid dependence: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Int Med. 2014;174(12):1947-1954.

138. Gruber V, Delucchi K, Kielstein A, Batki S. A randomized trial of six-month methadone maintenance with standard or minimal counseling versus 21-day methadone detoxifcation. Drug Alcohol Dependence. 2008;94:199.

139. Smyth BP, Barry J, Keenan E, Ducray K. (2010). Lapse and relapse following inpatient treatment of opiate dependence. Irish Med J. 2010;103(6):176-179.

140. Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, Vecchi S, Ferri M, Mayet S. Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments versus pharmacological treatments for opioid detoxification. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;4:CD005031.

141. Amato L, Minozzi S, Davoli M, Vecchi S. Psychosocial and pharmacological treatments versus pharmacological treatments for opioid detoxification. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;9:CD005031.

142. Streel E, Verbanck P. Ultra-rapid opiate detoxification: from clinical applications to basic science. Addict Biol. 2003;8(2):141-146.

143. Singh J, Basu D. Ultra-rapid opioid detoxification: current status and controversies. J Postgrad Med. 2004;50(3):227-232.

144. Krabbe PF, Koning JP, Heinen N, Laheij RJ, van Cauter RM, De Jong CA. Rapid detoxification from opioid dependence under general anaesthesia versus standard methadone tapering: abstinence rates and withdrawal distress experiences. Addict Biol. 2003;8(3):351-358.

145. Forozeshfard M, Hosseinzadah ZB, Saberi Zafarghandi MB, Bandari R, Foroutan B. Six-month follow-up study of ultrarapid opiate detoxification with naltrexone. Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2014;3(4):e20944.

146. Salimi A, Safari F, Mohajerani SA, Hashemian M, Kolahi AA, Mottaghi K. Long-term relapse of ultra-rapid opioid detoxification.J Addict Dis. 2014;33(1):33-40.

147. Rapid and Ultra-Rapid Detoxification in Adults with Opioid Addiction: A Review of Clinical and Cost-Effectiveness, Safety, and Guidelines [Internet]. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health: Key Findings. Aailable at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK343900/. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

148. Collins ED, Kleber HD, Whittington RA, Heitler NE. Anesthesia-assisted vs. buprenorphine- or clonidine-assisted heroin detoxification and naltrexone induction: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2005;294(8):903-913.

149. Gowing L, Ali R, White J. Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;2:CD002022.

150. Gowing L, Ali R, White JM. Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opioid withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;1:CD002022.

151. Fiellin DA, O'Connor PG. Office-based treatment of opioid-dependent patients. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(11):817-823.

152. Nunes EV, Sullivan MA, Levin FR. Treatment of depression in patients with opiate dependence. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;56(1):793-802.

153. Bell J, Zador D. A risk-benefit analysis of methadone maintenance treatment. Drug Saf. 2000;22(3):179-190.

154. Kraft MK, Rothbard AB, Hadley TR, McLellan AT, Asch DA. Are supplementary services provided during methadone maintenance really cost-effective? Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(9):1214-1219.

155. McCarty D, Perrin NA, Green CA, Polen MR, Leo MC, Lynch F. Methadone maintenance and the cost and utilization of health care among individuals dependent on opioids in a commercial health plan. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2010;111(3):235-240.

156. Clark RE, Samnaliev M, Baxter JD, Leung GY. The evidence doesn't justify steps by state Medicaid programs to restrict opioid addiction treatment with buprenorphine. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011;30(8):1425-1433.

157. Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M. Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2:CD002207.

158. Jegu J, Gallini A, Soler P, Montastruc JL, Lapeyre-Mestre M. Slow-release oral morphine for opioid maintenance treatment: a systematic review. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;71(6):832-843.

159. Ferri M, Minozzi S, Bo A, Amato L. Slow-release oral morphine as maintenance therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;6:CD009879.

160. Bond AJ, Reed KD, Beavan P, Strang J. After the randomized injectable opiate treatment trial: post-trial investigation of slow-release oral morphine as an alternative opiate maintenance medication. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2012;31(4):492-498.

161. Uchtenhagen AA. Heroin maintenance treatment: from idea to research to practice. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2011;30(2):130-137.

162. Schechter MT, Kendall P. Is there a need for heroin substitution treatment in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside? Yes there is, and in many other places too. Can J Public Health. 2011;102(2):87-89.

163. Woody GE. Research findings on psychotherapy of addictive disorders. Am J Addict. 2003;12(Suppl 2):S19-S26.

164. Morgan JR, Schackman BR, Leff JA, Linas BP, Walley AY. Injectable naltrexone, oral naltrexone, and buprenorphine utilization and discontinuation among individuals treated for opioid use disorder in a United States commercially insured population. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2018;85:90-96.

165. Minozzi S, Amato L, Vecchi S, Davoli M, Kirchmayer U, Verster A. Oral naltrexone maintenance treatment for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;4:CD001333.

166. Amato L, Davoli M, Perucci CA, Ferri M, Faggiano F, Mattick RP. An overview of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of opiate maintenance therapies: available evidence to inform clinical practice and research. J Sub Abuse Treat. 2005;28(4):321-329.

167. Humphreys K, Wing S, McCarty D, et al. Self-help organizations for alcohol and drug problems: toward evidence-based practice and policy. J Substance Abuse Treat. 2004;26(3):151-165.

168. Ronel N, Gueta K, Abramsohn Y, Caspi N, Adelson M. Can a 12-step program work in methadone maintenance treatment? Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol. 2011;55(7):1135-1153.

169. Stoops WW, Lile JA, Glaser PE, Hays LR, Rush CR. Alternative reinforcer response cost impacts cocaine choice in humans. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2012;36(1):189-193.

170. Donovan DM, Ingalsbe MH, Benbow J, Daley DC. 12-step interventions and mutual support programs for substance use disorders: an overview. Soc Work Public Health. 2013;28(3-4):313-332.

171. Crape BL, Latkin CA, Laris AS, Knowlton AR. The effects of sponsorship in 12-step treatment of injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;65:291-301.

172. Wendt DC, Hallgren KA, Daley DC, Donovan DM. Predictors and outcomes of twelve-step sponsorship of stimulant users: secondary analyses of a multisite randomized clinical trial. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2017;78(2):287-295.

173. Christo G, Sutton S. Anxiety and self-esteem as a function of abstinence time among recovering addicts attending Narcotics Anonymous. Br J Clin Psychol. 1994;33:198-200.

174. Ginter W. Methadone Anonymous and mutual support for medication-assisted recovery. J Groups Addict Recovery. 2012;7(2-4):189-201.

175. Methadone is Recovery. Available at http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/heroin/methadone/dont/m_isreco.htm. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

176. Opiate Addiction and Treatment Resource. Methadone Clinic Directory. Available at https://www.opiateaddictionresource.com/treatment/methadone_clinic_directory. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

177. Glickman L, Galanter M, Dermatis H, Dingle S. Recovery and spiritual transformation among peer leaders of a modified Methadone Anonymous group. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2006;38(4):531-533.

178. Jordan JB. Acupuncture treatment for opiate addiction: a systematic review. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2006;30(4):309-314.

179. Otto KC. Acupuncture and substance abuse: a synopsis, with indications for further research. Am J Addict. 2003;12(1):43-51.

180. Motlagh FE, Ibrahim F, Rashid RA, Seghatoleslam T, Habil H. Acupuncture therapy for drug addiction. Chin Med. 2016;11:16.

181. Wu SL, Leung AW, Yew DT. Acupuncture for detoxification in treatment of opioid addiction. East Asian Arch Psychiatry. 2016;26(2): 70-76.

182. Ross S, Peselow E. Co-occurring psychotic and addictive disorders: neurobiology and diagnosis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2012;35(5):235-243.

183. Kelly TM, Daley DC. Integrated treatment of substance use and psychiatric disorders. Soc Work Public Health. 2013;28(0):388-406.

184. Hser YI, Grella CE, Hubbard RL, et al. An evaluation of drug treatments for adolescents in 4 U.S. cities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(7):689-695.

185. Goldner EM, Lusted A, Roerecke M, Rehm J, Fischer B. Prevalence of Axis-1 psychiatric (with focus on depression and anxiety) disorder and symptomatology among non-medical prescription opioid users in substance use treatment: systematic review and meta-analyses. Addict Behav. 2014;39(3):520-531.

186. Wasan AD, Michna E, Edwards RR, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity is associated prospectively with diminished opioid analgesia and increased opioid misuse in patients with chronic low back pain. Anesthesiology. 2015;123(4):861-872.

187. Howe CQ, Sullivan MD. The missing 'P' in pain management: how the current opioid epidemic highlights the need for psychiatric services in chronic pain care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2014;36(1):99-104.

188. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Estimation methodology for adults with serious mental illness (SMI). Fed Regist. 1999;64(121):33890-33897.

189. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Common Comorbidities with Substance Use Disorders Research Report. Available at https://nida.nih.gov/publications/research-reports/common-comorbidities-substance-use-disorders/introduction./ Last accessed March 13, 2024.

190. Strain EC. Assessment and treatment of comorbid psychiatric disorders in opioid-dependent patients. Clin J Pain. 2002;18(4 Suppl):S14-S27.

191. Ross S, Peselow E. Co-occurring psychotic and addictive disorders: neurobiology and diagnosis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2012;35(5):235-243.

192. Morojele NK, Saban A, Seedat S. Clinical presentations and diagnostic issues in dual diagnosis disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2012;25(3):181-186.

193. Mueser KT, Gingerich S. Treatment of co-occurring psychotic and substance use disorders. Soc Work Public Health. 2013;28(3-4):424-439.

194. Torrens M, Rossi PC, Martinez-Riera R, Martinez-Sanvisens D, Bulbena A. Psychiatric co-morbidity and substance use disorders: treatment in parallel systems or in one integrated system? Subst Use Misuse. 2012;47(8-9):1005-1014.

195. Nunes EV, Levin FR. Treatment of depression in patients with alcohol or other drug dependence: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2004;291(15):1887-1896.

196. DeMarce JM, Lash SJ, Stephens RS, Grambow SC, Burden JL. Promoting continuing care adherence among substance abusers with co-occurring psychiatric disorders following residential treatment. Addict Behav. 2008;33(9):1104-1112.

197. Kelly TM, Daley DC, Douaihy AB. Treatment of substance abusing patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders. Addict Behav. 2012;37(1):11-24.

198. Baker AL, Hides L, Lubman DI. Treatment of cannabis use among people with psychotic or depressive disorders: A systematic review.J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71:247-254.

199. Mangrum LF, Spence RT, Lopez M. Integrated versus parallel treatment of co-occurring psychiatric and substance use disorders. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2006;30(1):79-84.

200. van der Bosch LM, Verheul R. Patients with addiction and personality disorder: Treatment outcomes and clinical implications. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2007;20(1):67-71.

201. Weiss RD, Connery HS. Integrated Group Therapy for Bipolar Disorders and Substance Abuse. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2011.

202. Rayburn WF, Bogenschutz MP. Pharmacotherapy for pregnant women with addictions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(6):1885-1897.

203. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Opioid use and opioid use disorder in pregnancy. Committee Opinion No. 711. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;30:e81-e94.

204. Anbalagan S, Mendez MD. Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing; 2024.

205. Zankl A, Martin J, Davey JG, Osborn DA. Opioid treatment for opioid withdrawal in newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;7:CD005059.

206. Hamdan AH. Neonatal abstinence syndrome. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/978763-overview. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

207. Ferri M, Davoli M, Perucci CA. Heroin maintenance for chronic heroin dependents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;8:CD003410.

208. Hudak ML, Tan RC, Committee on Drugs. Neonatal Committee on Fetus and Newborn. drug withdrawal. Pediatrics. 2012;129(2):e540-e560.

209. Grim K, Harrison TE, Wilder RT. Management of neonatal abstinence syndrome from opioids. Clin Perinatol. 2013;40(3):509-524.

210. Jones HE, Kaltenbach K, Heil SH, et al. Neonatal abstinence syndrome after methadone or buprenorphine exposure. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(24):2320-2331.

211. Brogly SB, Saia KA, Walley AY, Du HM, Sebastiani P. Prenatal buprenorphine versus methadone exposure and neonatal outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180(7):673-686.

212. Bell J, Harvey-Dodds L. Pregnancy and injecting drug use. BMJ. 2008;336(7656):1303-1305.

213. Hudak ML, Tan RC, The Committee on Drugs, The Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Neonatal drug withdrawal. Pediatrics. 2012;129(2):e540-e560.

214. Jansson LM, Choo RE, Harrow C, et al. Concentration of methadone in breast milk and plasma in the immediate perinatal period.J Hum Lact. 2007;23(2):184-190.

215. Reece-Stremtan S, Marinelli KA. ABM clinical protocol #21: guidelines for breastfeeding and substance use or substance use disorder, revised 2015. Breastfeed Med. 2015;10(3):135-141.

216. Minozzi S, Amato L, Jahanfar S, Bellisario C, Ferri M, Davoli M. Maintenance agonist treatments for opiate-dependent pregnant women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;11:CD006318.

217. Rao R, Desai NS. OxyContin and neonatal abstinence syndrome. J Perinatol. 2002;22(4):324-325.

218. Deflorimonte C, Gissendorf V, Hofer J, et al. National provider survey: use of naltrexone for pregnant individuals with substance use disorders. J Addict Med. 2023;17(6):736-738.

219. Dixon DW. Opioid Abuse Follow-Up. Prognosis. Available at https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/287790-followup. Last accessed March 13, 2024.

Evidence-Based Practice Recommendations Citations

1. Hooten M, Thorson D, Bianco J, et al. Pain: Assessment, Non-Opioid Treatment Approaches and Opioid Management. Bloomington, MN: Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement; 2019. Available at https://www.icsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Pain-Interactive-7th-V2-Ed-8.17.pdf. Last accessed March 21, 2024.

2. World Health Organization. Community Management of Opioid Overdose. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014. Available at https:// www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241548816. Last accessed March 21, 2024.

3. Chou R, Cruciani RA, Fiellin DA, et al. Methadone safety: a clinical practice guideline from the American Pain Society and College on Problems of Drug Dependence, in collaboration with the Heart Rhythm Society. J Pain. 2014;15(4):321-337. Available at https://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(14)00522-7/fulltext. Last accessed March 21, 2024.

4. Management of Substance Use Disorders Work Group. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders. Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense; 2021. Available at https://www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/MH/sud/VADoDSUDCPG.pdf. Last accessed March 21, 2024.

5. World Health Organization. Guidelines for the Identification and Management of Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders in Pregnancy. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014. Available at https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241548731. Last accessed March 21, 2024.


Copyright © 2024 NetCE, PO Box 997571, Sacramento, CA 95899-7571
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.